The Mythic Themes

Perhaps the most intriguing features of the Arthurian story are the three main mystical elements that appear in nearly all the Romances: Excalibur, the Holy Grail and the Isle of Avalon. Were these themes associated with the legend of King Arthur before the Middle Ages? Or were they simply an invention of Geoffrey of Monmouth and his successors? To answer these questions, an examination of all three motifs is necessary to establish their origin and meaning.

Excalibur
The name Excalibur, the sword that was the source of Arthur’s power and authority was an adaptation of Geoffrey’s name for Arthur’s sword, Caliburn. The adaptation was made by a Norman writer called Wace, who composed the Roman de Brut, (“Romance of Brutus” the first in the line of kings whose history the work traces). Wace’s work was adapted into Middle English by Laymon, an English priest, and the name has been used by every successor to Geoffrey since. The name’s origin is debated as in earlier works it is called by different, though philologically similar, names. It is however possible that the origin of the Excalibur theme may have originated within earlier Celtic legendary traditions.

The familiar story of Excalibur is not related by Geoffrey, he only tells us that it was forged on the mystical isle of Avalon. The story was introduced in the form known today a century later in a large number of rambling Arthurian tales known as the Vulgate Cycle. This records how Arthur received Excalibur from a mysterious nymph known as the Lady of the Lake, and then at the death of Arthur it is flung back into her care. The motif was taken up and elaborated on by Malory and was firmly entrenched in the saga by the end of the Middle Ages.

There are clear Celtic undertones to the Excalibur theme, and it does suggest that the writers of the vulgate material were utilising much earlier material and traditions. It is well known that Celtic people of Northern Europe threw precious objects, including swords, into pools or lakes that were considered sacred, as votive offerings to water deities. Could the theme of Excalibur being thrown to the Lady of the Lake therefore be an echo of this practice, perhaps in the hope of restoring the king to health?

This hypothesis is substantiated by the Romances, here the Lady of the Lake is given the name Viviane. This could very well be an adaptation of a Celtic water deity, namely Covianna, a shrine to this deity can still be seen on Hadrian’s Wall with the Romanised name of Coventina. A well associated with the cult was excavated and found to contain numerous votive offerings mainly coins. The practice has survived until the present day in the tradition of ‘wishing’ wells.

As a motif, the sword is a powerful symbol of masculinity, denoting strength, power and, in the Middle Ages more particularly, a symbol of chivalry; it is an implement that serves to overcome hostile powers. The sword as a weapon, especially in the context of heroic warriors or knights, is closely connected with its owner, as if it were part of him, sometimes it, like Excalibur, has a name even a personality of its own. It becomes synonymous with its owner, the two identities become intertwined and the sword becomes representative of its owner. Arthur today is recognised mainly by reference to the motif of Excalibur.

The other popular ‘sword theme’, the sword in the stone seems to be an entirely separate theme. This became confused with Excalibur during the nineteenth century, it was not Excalibur that was drawn out of the stone in the original Romances, but an entirely different sword. Malory’s version of the tale indicates that the incident occurs well before Merlin takes Arthur to receive Excalibur from the Lady of the Lake. Malory simply states that the sword appears in the churchyard of the ‘greatest church in London’. The originator of this theme was Robert de Boron who, writing in the later twelfth century was later paraphrased by Malory. This theme too has Celtic overtones, Robert may have based his conception on knowledge of the traditions of the Celtic warrior elite. If a dispute arose concerning the election of a leader, the matter was resolved by trial of combat, though not necessarily to the death, between the rival candidates. This theme is clearly illustrated by the gathering of knights who fight for the right to pull the sword from the stone. The prize fought for by the candidates would be a sword that had been consecrated in some fashion, and laid upon a stone altar throughout the contest. The sword was a symbol of fidelity and it was believed that the sword would inflict a curse on anyone who broke the covenant. That Arthur is successful when not having contested the issue, could be a reference to contemporary ideals of what qualities a monarch should possess, humility and piety.

A second possibility, though less romantic, is that the Latin word for a large rock or stone 'saxum', is a word that could easily have been mistaken with the word Saxon. Here, therefore, could be a correlation between the legend and the historical 'facts' of the tale. Any potential leader had to prove himself by taking the sword, the fight, from the Saxon invaders. In the original versions of the Romances the sword is placed not in the stone, but in an anvil upon the stone. Using the same thesis as above the similarities between the words anvil and Angle, may have implied some notions of defeating both the Angles and the Saxons. The sword in the stone theme could have been either a misinterpretation or a deliberate play on words.

Apart from the more romantic or fanciful aspects of the Arthurian tales, the stories of the sword of Arthur, may well have genuine associations with the reality of the ‘Arthurian period’ and the tales recording it.

The Holy Grail
The central symbol of the legend of King Arthur is the quest for the Holy Grail. Introduced by Robert de Boron in his trilogy of Arthurian verse at the end of the twelfth century as a notion of the Grail being the vessel used by Christ at the last Supper, along with the sword in the stone motif. The first references to the Grail appear in Chrétien de Troyes Le Conte del Graal, the hero of this tale, Perceval witnesses a strange procession whilst at the castle of the Fisher King. It is led by a boy carrying a bloodied lance, the procession surrounds a beautiful maiden carrying what Chrétien describes simply as a graal. It is unclear what Chrétien’s graal is meant to be, he does not describe what it is but does point out that it is worked with fine gold and jewels. It could refer to a cup or chalice, though it is more likely that it is a platter or a dish as the Fisher King is served a Mass wafer that had been placed upon it. Grail, as a word is possibly derived from the old French word gradale (Latin gradalis), a derivation, gasal (grail) is still in use in parts of France today.

The significance, purpose and origins of Chrétien’s graal are obscure and mysterious, but it does tend to undermine a common theory that the Grail itself was a Christianised form of the legendary Celtic healing cup, this relies on the Grail being a chalice or cup. If more was known about Chrétien’s graal then more secure conclusions could be drawn, as it is the Le Conte del Graal was unfinished, it was his last work.

Another epic poem with Arthurian themes does survive, Parzifal, written by a German poet named Wolfram von Eschenbach. This poem was essentially a re-working of Chrétien’s work but was also influenced by Arthurian literature and incorporated a tradition concerning the Grail which has caused difficulties to mythologists and historians alike. Wolfram refers to the Grail as a stone not a vessel or platter. Here it appears he was drawing upon traditions from Ethiopia, then known as Abyssinia, that had filtered through contacts with the Arab world by the Crusaders, or more specifically the Knights Templar. Wolfram specifically ties his Grail motif to the Arab world by his specific mention of the knights Templar. Many Arab tales and their heroes were transformed by crusading European soldiers who replaced the original heroes with medieval European ones.

In Wolfram’s poem the Grail is a stone called the Lapsit Excellis, from the Latin lapis exilis, meaning, literally, a small stone. This stone was used, according to Wolfram, by God to banish the angels who failed to support him in the battle with Lucifer. The stone has similar powers to the Grail of the Arthurian tale, it is imbued with the power of healing, the ability to supply food and drink, and preserve life.

‘However ill a mortal man may be, from the day on which he sees the stone he cannot die for that week, nor does he lose his colour. For if anyone, maid or man, were to look at the Gral for two hundred years, you would have to admit that his colour was as fresh as in his early prime........Such powers does the stone confer on mortal men that their flesh and bones are soon made young again. This stone is called the Gral.’

The Arthurian story had already found its way into Germany around 1200 within two poems, Erec and Iwein, written by the poet Hartmann von Aue. It is likely that Wolfram placed his hero within an Arthurian context and added it to his re-working of Le Conte del Graal.

An interesting line of research completed recently has attempted to link Eschenbach’s conception of the Grail with the Old Testament Ark of the Covenant. Although the methodology used is sometimes suspect, it does point to substantive links with the Templar movement, Abyssinia (Ethiopia), and the Ark. Hancock believes Escenbach to be deliberately alluding to the Ark, but providing information in codified form. He also illustrates that the Grail as a stone can still be regarded as a vessel, it ‘contains’ the grace of God. He illustrates his point with references to the Virgin Mary as a ‘Grail’ herself, the vessel that carries the holy child. This thesis is taken forward to encompass the Ark of the Covenant, as the repository of the tablets of law. It is the Tablets, he argues, that is the ‘Ark’, they are a vessel that contains the word and grace of God.

In her examination of the Grail Legend Emma Jung equates the Grail motif, Wolfram’s Grail in particular, with the classical motif of the horn of plenty. This appears frequently in many fairy-tales, as a wishing object taking the form of pots, cups, cloths or baskets. She does not however allude to the possibility of the stone being a ‘vessel’ of any kind, interpreting it in a different manner:

“In this sense the vessel or the stone signifies the whole psychic man (not his ego) as a realisation of divinity reaching right down into matter”.

Whatever the origin it is likely that the story of the Grail was added to the Arthurian legend as the Grail of Wolfram and Chrétien has no connection with Arthur himself.

There are two ‘mythic’ elements or motifs visible within the Grail Quest motif; a journey through hardship, and a magical prize or goal. In mythic terms the Grail is therefore not important for what it is, a cup, but for what it personifies. It represents an idea, not a human reality, it is a primal image and as such it is of far-reaching significance, Grail and quest-like themes are found in countless myths, legends and fairytales throughout the world. The Grail itself, as a vessel, and at its most fundamental level, according to E. Jung, is one of the first manifestations of culture and as such is possessed of a magically significant numinous character when associated with the culture hero.

That this vessel, is so often considered to be a life giving or life maintaining object is understandable when it is realised, on a mundane level how important receptacles, that could contain life giving or sustaining substances such as water, were and still are. As such the symbol of the Grail or vessel becomes an archetypal conception. C. Jung states that the archetypes represent innate predisposition’s to human behaviour in certain life situations and the ability to grasp their meaning. The image of the vessel, therefore could correspond to such a ‘pattern’, to a possibility inherent in the psyche of finding or producing a vessel and discovering its uses.

In nearly all mythologies there is a reference to a miraculous vessel, it dispenses all manner of things that fundamentally affect the human perspective of life. It can dispense youth, or possess the power of healing or life restoration, occasionally, as can be seen in the mead cauldron of the Nordic deity Ymir, the vessel can even dispense inspiring strength and wisdom. As a humble cooking pot the mythic vessel can effect transformations or feed armies without emptying.

Britain does actually offer a native parallel to the Grail itself, The basket of Gwyddno Gahanir (Welsh: Mwys) was one of the Thirteen Precious Things of the Island of Britain. When food was placed inside the basket it would be found upon opening that it contained food for a hundred. Joseph of Arimathea, the individual who supposedly brought the Grail to Britain, was sustained by it whilst he was in prison

Mallory describes the sacred relic as a ‘vessel of gold’ carried by a ‘perfect, clean maiden. The Grail as a cup or a bowl (usually in which Joseph of Arimathea caught a few drops of the blood of Christ as he hung suffering on the cross), is an image that has been so pervasive that it is difficult to think of it as anything else but a cup.

The function of the Grail motif is a difficult one to assess. On a simplistic level, the Grail represents treasure, all good tales have a search for buried or hidden treasure, the more difficult the search or quest, the more interesting the tale. the definition of the treasure itself becomes a problem of interpretation. The possible function of the Grail motif is to illustrate the quest for spiritual purity, gaining the ‘treasure’ is to gain spiritual reward. In effect it becomes a ‘manual’ to illustrate the paths that can be taken to achieve such a goal and their hardship, it is possibly a metaphor, though somewhat romantic. treating it as such does not detract from its quality as a motif or demean its power.

Avalon
The other ‘mystical’ area of the Arthurian tale, and perhaps the most haunting and evocative is Avalon and Arthur’s last resting place. In Geoffrey’s account, Avalon seems to be a mixture of both Celtic and Classical mythological elements. His descriptions of the isle owe nothing to Celtic tradition and are quite blatantly based around the Greek myth of the Fortunate Isles. Here the motifs of vines that sow themselves and inhabitants that live for a hundred years firmly anchor the basis of Geoffrey’s Avalon within the corpus of Greek mythology.

However, there is a Celtic element present that underlines his narrative. Not only are there nine holy women, and the Celtic goddess Morrigan, who appears as Morgan; the name Avalon itself appears to be of Celtic origin. An ancient cycle of poems from Ireland involving the popular sea god Manannan, who rules over a magical island that is described by the Gaelic word ablach, which means ‘rich in apples’. Geoffrey goes as far as to call Avalon the ‘Isle of Apples’ in his book of Merlin the Vita Merlini.

Searching for the actual location of Avalon has kept scholars occupied for many years it is however, as an issue, extremely problematical and complex. If it were based upon a real island, its location could be almost anywhere; the Isle of Man taking its name from Manannan himself has been considered a good candidate, as has Ireland itself. The Scilly Isles which according to a legend dating back to the Middle Ages had a queen called Morgan, the Scottish contender is Iona and the Welsh, Bardsea Island. Bardsea was for centuries the burial ground of Christian holy men and saints, there is even a thirteenth century legend that states that Merlin is asleep there in a cave, and that he preserves a cauldron containing the treasures of the vanquished Britons. This last part is actually a nice fusion of the Grail legend and Merlin the advisor to Arthur.

In his attempt to amalgamate the Arthurian legends, Sir Thomas Malory tried to rationalise the various explanations of the death and burial. He first indicates that Arthur went to Avalon to be healed; he does not say where he was finally laid to rest. The legend was apparently too well known for him to fabricate a location of his own. William of Malmsbury had already written before Geoffrey that the grave of Arthur had still not been located. The Welsh poem, the ‘Stanza of the Graves’, deals with the burial places of Celtic heroes and also admits that the grave of Arthur remains a mystery.

The most likely explanation behind the motif, is that Avalon as a legend is derived from Celtic mythology and its representation of the underworld. A dead hero is often taken straight into the underworld of the gods bodily. Much the same as Valkyries remove the slain from battlefields in Norse mythology. The Avalon motif could have been a part of Arthurian legend as it existed before Geoffrey’s time. It also serves to illustrate that the world of ‘pagan’ belief and knowledge of it was still very much ‘just under the surface’. However Christian history likes to purport its blanket monopoly of belief, earlier structures were still accessible in the minds and traditions of the majority of people within the whole period that these legends cover.

What the examination of these motifs does teach, is that the tales concerning Excalibur, Avalon and the Holy Grail were based upon a huge body of material that could be related to the Arthurian legend at a time when the first Romances were written.

[Chapter 4]